Engineered osteochondral construct for treatment of articular cartilage defects

ABSTRACT

An implant for articular cartilage repair includes (1) a three-dimensional body formed of cancellous bone having a demineralized section that contains bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP&#39;s) that are released by the demineralization but retained in the body, and (2) a cartilage layer formed on a surface of the demineralized section. The cartilage layer is formed by a method including the steps of (a) isolating chondrocytes from articular cartilage of a donor; (b) cultivating the isolated chondrocytes in a medium; (c) adding the cultivated chondrocytes to the demineralized section of the body, whereby the cultivated chondrocytes are stimulated by the BMP&#39;s retained in the body; and (d) incubating the cultivated chondrocytes to form a plurality of layers of chondrocytes on the demineralized section, wherein the plurality of layers of chondrocytes forms the cartilage layer.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/481,955, filed Jul. 7, 2006, and claims the priority of U.S.Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/697,563, filed Jul. 11, 2005. Thedisclosure of each of the applications identified above is incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

Not applicable.

REFERENCE TO SEQUENCE LISTING, A TABLE OR A COMPUTER PROGRAM LISTINGCOMPACT DISC APPENDIX

None.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The present invention is generally directed towards the treatment ofarticular cartilage defects using an allograft bone scaffold or carrier.In particular, the allograft bone is treated with allograft chondrocytesto form a cartilage surface on the allograft bone.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Chondrocytes are cells specific to articular cartilage. The isolationand cultivation of chondrocytes is a standard procedure, which has beenundertaken for more than 10 years. Under two-dimensional cultureconditions in cell culture vessels, chondrocytes dedifferentiate tofibroblast-like cells. During the dedifferentiation they lose theirtypical properties (grade of differentiation, cell form, synthesis ofcartilage-specific matrix components), which are essential forphysiology and biomechanics of cartilage.

For many years there have been attempts to transplant dedifferentiatedchondrocytes grown under two-dimensional culture conditions into humanjoint defects. Transplantation of cells grown in culture providesanother method of introducing a new cell population into chondral andosteochondral defects. The procedure uses arthroscopy to take a biopsyfrom a healthy, less loaded area of articular cartilage. Enzymaticdigestion of the harvested tissue releases the cells that are sent to alaboratory where they are grown. Once cultivated, they are injectedduring a more open and extensive knee procedure into areas of defectivecartilage in an attempt to facilitate the repair of damaged tissue.

The technique of autologous chondrocyte transplantation is very complexand requires postoperative immobilization of the patient. The surgicalsite cannot bear load post surgery because the transplanted chondrocyteshave to reach their original biological state (redifferentiation of invitro dedifferentiated cells), then have to anchor to the defect,synthesize the cartilage-specific matrix and rebuild a new cartilage.

In the procedure of mosaicplasty (autologous cartilage transplantation),cartilage-bone cylinders are removed from non-load-bearing joint areasof the patient and transplanted into the defect. This method shows goodclinical results including a good load capacity of the operatedknee-joint, but is only applicable to small cartilage defects due to thelimited availability of autologous osteochondral cylinders. Classicaloperation techniques, which do not use cartilage or chondrocytetransplantation (abrasion, debridement, Pridie-drilling), result only ina defect repair with fibrous, less load-bearing tissue unfortunately.Additionally, repeated treatment is necessary as this tissue degeneratesover time.

Osteochondral transplantation or mosaicplasty involves excising allinjured or unstable tissue from the articular defect and creatingcylindrical holes in the base of the defect and underlying bone. Theseholes are filled with autologous cylindrical plugs of healthy cartilageand bone in a mosaic fashion. The osteochondral plugs are harvested froma lower weight-bearing area of lesser importance in the same joint.Reports of results of osteochondral plug autografts in a small number ofpatients indicate that they decrease pain and improve joint function,however, long-term results have not been reported. Factors that cancompromise the results include donor site morbidity, effects of jointincongruity on the opposing surface of the donor site, damage to thechondrocytes at the articular margins of the donor and recipient sitesduring preparation and implantation, and collapse or settling of thegraft over time. The limited availability of sites for harvest ofosteochondral autografts restricts the use of this approach to treatmentof relatively small articular defects and the healing of the chondralportion of the autograft to the adjacent articular cartilage remains aconcern.

As previously noted, transplantation of cells grown in culture providesanother method of introducing a new cell population into chondral andosteochondral defects. Carticel® is a commercial process to culture thepatient's own cartilage cells for use in the repair of cartilage defectsin the knee joint marketed by Genzyme Biosurgery in the United Statesand Europe. The procedure uses arthroscopy to take a biopsy from ahealthy, less loaded area of articular cartilage. Enzymatic digestion ofthe harvested tissue releases the cells that are sent to a laboratorywhere they are grown for a period ranging from 2-5 weeks to achieve a 10fold increase in cell mass. Once cultivated, the autologous cells areinjected during an open and extensive knee procedure into areas ofdefective cartilage where it is hoped that they will facilitate therepair of damaged tissue. An autologous periosteal flap with cambiumlayer facing down is used to seal the transplanted cells in place andact as a mechanical barrier. Fibrin glue is used to seal the edges ofthe flap. This technique preserves the subchondral bone plate.Proponents of this procedure report that it produces satisfactoryresults, including the ability to return to demanding physicalactivities, in more than 80% of patients and that biopsy specimens ofthe tissue in the graft sites show hyaline-like cartilage repair.However, long term studies of this procedure in rabbits and dogs showedlimited success and showed degradation at the implant site. The originalstudy report has been criticized for not being a prospective controlledrandomized study and for lack of quantitative or mechanical data. Ofinterest, a 14 year follow-up of a similar patient group that underwentdiagnostic arthroscopy in combination with one of several treatments(removal of bone bodies, shaving, Pridie drilling) had good to excellentknee function in 78% of the patients. Thus, further studies are neededto assess the function and durability of the new tissue to determinewhether it improves joint function and delays or prevents jointdegeneration.

As with the perichondrial graft, patient/donor age may compromise thesuccess of this procedure as the chondrocyte population decreases withincreasing age. Disadvantages to this procedure include the need for twoseparate surgical procedures, potential damage to surrounding cartilagewhen the periosteal patch is sutured in place, the requirement ofdemanding microsurgical techniques, and the expensive cost of theprocedure which is currently not covered by insurance.

The use of implants for cartilage defects is much more limited than thatfor bone defects. Aside from the fresh allograft implants and autologousimplants, U.S. Pat. No. 6,110,209 issued Nov. 5, 1998 shows the use ofan autologous articular cartilage cancellous bone paste to fillarthritic defects. The surgical technique is arthroscopic and includesdebriding (shaving away loose or fragmented articular cartilage),followed by morselizing the base of the arthritic defect with an awluntil bleeding occurs. An osteochondral graft is then harvested from theinner rim of the intercondylar notch using a trephine. The graft is thenmorselized in a bone graft crusher, mixing the articular cartilage withthe cancellous bone. The paste is then pushed into the defect andsecured by the adhesive properties of the bleeding bone. The paste canalso be mixed with a cartilage stimulating factor, a plurality of cells,or a biological glue. All patients are kept non-weight bearing for fourweeks and used a continuous passive motion machine for six hours eachnight. Histologic appearance of the biopsies have mainly shown a mixtureof fibrocartilage with hyaline cartilage. Concerns associated with thismethod are harvest site morbidity and availability, similar to themosaicplasty method.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,379,367 issued Apr. 30, 2002 discloses a plug with abase membrane, a control plug, and a top membrane which overlies thesurface of the cartilage covering the defective area of the joint.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,488,033 issued Dec. 3, 2002 discloses an allograft plugwith a cartilage cap which is surface contour matched to the surface ofa condyle defect area which is to be replaced. The allograft plug istransplanted in an interference fit within the cavity site which remainsafter a condylar defect is removed from a patients condyle.

The present implant and method differs from the above prior art in thatit is directed to allograft chondrocyte transplantation on an allograftcancellous bone carrier to provide an implant for cartilagetransplantation.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present method utilizes techniques of autograft and/or allograftchondrocyte transplantation onto a demineralized allograft cancellousbone implant structure to form an implant with a cartilage layer on thebone structure for use in cartilage repair on a patient at a later time.

It is an object of the invention to use allograft cancellous bone as acarrier on which to grow a cartilage layer for use in cartilage repair.

It is an object of the invention to provide an autograft and/orallograft implant for joints which provides pain relief, restores normalfunction and will postpone or alleviate the need for prostheticreplacement.

It is also an object of the invention to provide a cartilage repairimplant which is easily placed in a defect area by the surgeon using anarthroscopic, minimally invasive technique.

It is further an object of the invention to provide an allograft implantprocedure which is applicable for both partial and full thicknesslesions.

It is yet another object of the invention to provide a cartilage implantwhich can be uniformly used for any patient.

These and other objects, advantages, and novel features of the presentinvention will become apparent when considered with the teachingscontained in the detailed disclosure along with the accompanyingdrawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a chart showing pH in the supernatants through a 44 dayperiod;

FIG. 2 is a chart showing calcium in the supernatants corrected by thecalcium content of pure medium through a 44 day period; and

FIG. 3 is a chart showing phosphate in the supernatant corrected by thephosphate content of pure medium through a 44 day period.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is susceptible of embodiment in various forms aswill hereinafter be described with the understanding that the presentdisclosure is to be considered as an exemplification of the invention,and is not intended to limit the invention to the specific embodimentsdisclosed herein.

Sterile cancellous bone replacement structures were utilized for the invitro grown cartilage replacements, which allow the fabrication ofload-bearing constructs. Bone morphogenetic proteins (“BMP's”) from thecancellous bone plugs have a positive effect on chondrocytedifferentiation in vitro by stimulating the formation of a native,chondrocyte-phenotype and proper matrix production by the cells. Thehighest stimulation effect of BMP's on chondrocytes can be observed, ifBMP's are immobilized onto a carrier or retained in a biological matrix.In these carriers the natural BMP's of the bone are released by thedemineralization but retained in the carrier matrix. For evaluating theeffect of the biological carrier structure of cancellous bone onchondrocyte growth, different synthetic carrier materials were used,among them GB 14 (Ca₂KNa(PO₄)₂), ceramics and hydroxyapatite.

In order to develop the in vitro manufactured cartilage constructs,chondrocytes were isolated from cartilage samples taken from donors byenzymatic digestion with collagenase, DNAse and hyaluronidase. Since thetotal number of chondrocytes and cell proliferation decrease with donorage, only donors younger than 50 years were used. Furthermore, boneshaving joint diseases and bone fractures were excluded from donorselection. After the enzymatic digestion, a suspension of chondrocyteswas obtained and tested by trypan blue exclusion to determine theviability of the cell suspension. The suspension was seeded to standardcell culture vessels in order to expand the cells. Since serum isnecessary for a good chondrocyte growth and maturation, the medium usedcontained 10% fetal calf serum. Ascorbic acid was added to stimulate thecollagen production by the cells.

The redifferentiation potential of two-dimensionally expanded cells wastested by transferring them into a three-dimensional agarose gel. Duringexpansion, the cells lost their original phenotype, formingfibroblast-like cells. After transferring them into the agarose gel, thenormal, round chondrocyte phenotype could be observed, indicating thatthe cells were able to redifferentiate. The chondrocytes wereresuspended in 0.5% low melting agarose reaching a final density of 2million cells/ml in order to increase the attachment on the carriers andwas then seeded onto the following different carrier materials.

I. Evaluation of Different Carrier Materials for Chondrocyte Cultures

The following synthetic carriers (bone replacement materials) wereinvestigated:

-   -   a1) CaCO₃/CaSO₄    -   a2) Ap40 (Apatite), slurry 6.89 μm    -   a3) GB 14    -   a4) 46CaO*23TiO₂*31P₂O₅

The following biologic carriers were evaluated (human cancellous bone,frozen, sterilized with peracetic acid, provided by the tissue bank ofDIZG):

-   -   b1) B0/1, donor 432/98, 54 y., cancellous bone from tibia        plateau not demineralized    -   b2) B1/1 totally demineralized    -   b3) B2/1 superficially (surface) demineralized    -   b4) B0/2 donor 432/98, 54 y., cancellous bone from femur        epiphysis not demineralized    -   b5) B1/2 totally demineralized    -   b6) B2/2 superficially (surface) demineralized    -   b7) C0/2 donor 430/98, 60 y., cancellous bone from vertebral        column not demineralized    -   b8) C1/2 totally demineralized    -   b9) C2/2 superficially (surface) demineralized

The demineralization process was done according to standard operationsfor demineralization of cancellous bone. The cancellous cubes werewashed in order to remove the cells and then dried at 37° C. for 36hours. The cubes (1 cm×1 cm×1 cm) were demineralized in 1 N HCl for 24hours at room temperature. For the totally demineralized cubes, thewhole cancellous bone cube was incubated in this solution. In the caseof the partially demineralized bone only the front surface of the cubewas immersed to 2 mm depth in the solution. Approximately 2 mm of thesurface of the cube was totally demineralized with a boundary layerbetween the fully demineralized section and the mineralized sectionbeing about 50 μm thick. Afterwards the cubes were washed with sterilewater for injection until the pH was neutral.

II. Macroscopic and Microscopic Evaluation of the Carriers

The CaCO₃/CaSO₄ (a1) carrier showed a rough surface that could be easilydestroyed if touched with forceps. All other materials Ap40, GB 14 and46CaO*23TiO₂*31P₂O₅ had a plain and stiff surface, which was notdestroyed during manipulation. All synthetic carriers were sterilizedprior to use at 186° C./2.5 hours.

The totally and superficially demineralized cancellous bones cubes(b1-9) also showed no differences in material resistance (resistanceinvestigated by test with forceps, qualitative evaluation). Bothmaterials had a soft and spongy appearance.

Large pores in the range of 10-100 μm were observed in all cancelloussamples (b1-9) during microscopic evaluation. The pore size representeda multiple of the cell volume of a chondrocyte. Samples obtained fromvertebral column had a lower pore size than all other preparations.However, no particular bone tissue; namely, tibia, femur, vertebralcolumn appeared to have superior or inferior chondrocyte growthcapacities to the other.

III. Long-Term Incubation of the Carrier Materials

Both synthetic and allograft cancellous carriers were incubated undercell culture conditions in order to evaluate their long-term stability(incubation in Ham's F12 medium at 37° C., 6 weeks, no addition ofcells). The pH as well as the calcium and phosphate concentrations weremeasured in the supernatants every third day.

No structural changes were detected after the 6 week incubation of Ap40(a2) and 46CaO*23TiO₂*31P₂O₅ (a4). White, crystalline sediments wereobserved in the medium after 44 days of incubation from the carrier GB14. The CaCO₃/CaSO₄ carrier exhibited dramatic structural changes andvolume reduction under incubation at cell culture conditions. Theprocess of material destruction started after 3 days of incubation andwas accompanied by a large amount of particle release into the medium.

A medium pH of 7.32 was measured during long-term incubation ofCaCO₃/CaSO₄ carrier. The long term incubation only lasted 16 days as nofurther incubation was possible because of degradation of carrier. Insupernatants of GB 14, the carriers had a relatively high pH of morethan 7.5 (7.52) detected after 44 days. In the case of46CaO*23TiO₂*31P₂O₅-ceramic a pH of 7.5 was determined at days 4 and 7followed thereafter by only physiological pH-values (pH 7.4).Supernatants of Ap40 showed a physiological pH during the entireinvestigation increasing to 7.5 after 44 days.

A release of calcium into the medium was observed during incubation ofCaCO₃/CaSO₄, Ap40 and GB 14 carriers (calcium release ofCaCO₃/CaSO₄>Ap40>GB 14). Additionally, high amounts of phosphate weredetected in supernatants from GB 14 carriers with an increase inphosphate in 46CaO*23TiO₂*31P₂O₅ carriers.

Carriers that release particles are not suited for transplantation intothe knee joint because of the potential induction of cartilage damageand joint dysfunction. Also, carriers with high disposal of calcium andphosphate are not useful because they may induce undesired chondrocytecalcification. Consequently, only Ap40 and 46CaO*23TiO₂*31P₂O₅ were usedas non-biological carriers for establishing three-dimensionalchondrocyte cultures.

After 6 weeks of incubation of the biological carriers (cancellous bonetissue forms), there was no evidence of structural changes, volumereduction or release of calcium or phosphate. Only physiological pHvalues (pH 7.4) were measured in the supernatants during long-termincubation of the cancellous bone samples. All biological carriers didnot release significant amounts of calcium or phosphate to the medium.There were no significant pH changes observed if the bone cubes weresubmitted to along term incubation in medium and the final pH reachedphysiological values of approximately pH 7.4 after 44 days ofincubation.

IV. Isolation and Cultivation of Human Chondrocytes

Human chondrocytes were isolated by enzymatic digestion of humanarticular cartilage (donor age <50 years, no degenerative defects of theknee joint, no fractures of the underlying bone). A high cell viabilityof >90%, in many cases 100%, was measured after the isolation.

The cells were cultivated in medium without further supplementation withgrowth factors. The medium was changed every third day. A good celladhesion on the cultures vessels (cell culture flasks) was observedafter 7 days of incubation at 37° C. and 5% CO₂. Growth kinetics showedthat the population doubling time as well as the lag time were increasedwith increasing passage of the cells. The chondrocytes showed adedifferentiated, fibroblast-like phenotype in two-dimensional culture.

The redifferentiation potential of the dedifferentiated chondrocytes wasevaluated in 3D agarose cultures where the typical round cell form wasobserved (original chondrocyte phenotype, sign of redifferention ofdedifferentiated cells).

V. Development of Three-Dimensional Chondrocyte Cultures

The different carriers were fixed to the culture vessels (24 wellplates) by sealing with 4% low melting agarose. The surfaces of thecarriers were prepared for cell seeding by coating with poly-L-lysine(incubation 1 hour, non-bound lysine removed by washing). Thechondrocytes taken from both live and deceased donors were resuspendedin 2% low melting agarose and incubated in the refrigerator for 7minutes in order to obtain a more viscous suspension. The top of eachcarrier was overlaid with this viscous cell suspension. The seededcarriers were then transferred into the refrigerator for 15 minutes toallow for gelation. This was followed by a 1-hour incubation in theincubator (37° C., 5% CO₂). Afterwards, each vessel was supplied withculture medium. All cultures were incubated for 40 days and the mediumwas changed every third day.

Because of the low material stability of all other synthetic materialsonly Ap40 and 46CaO*23TiO₂*31P₂O₅-ceramic were used for theestablishment of three-dimensional chondrocyte cultures. Ap40 showed apH increase as well as increases in calcium in the supernatant.46CaO*23TiO₂*31P₂O₅ showed an increase in the phosphate in thesupernatant. Fibroblast-like, dedifferentiated cells were observed atthe surfaces of these materials after 15 days incubation, however, themajority of the surface was not covered by cells. The cells formed onlya single layer and were not surrounded by significant amounts ofextracellular matrix. The amount of cells did not increase in thefollowing culture period and there was no macroscopic sign ofneocartilage formation on these carriers.

There was a significant colonization of the osteobiological carriers(cancellous bone) with chondrocytes detectable after 40 days incubation.The range of cell density (i.e., cells per ml, or cells per cm³) willprovide attachment on the osteobiological carrier in a range frombetween 0.2 to 10 million cells per ml, or cells per cm³. The cellsshowed a chondrocyte-like, round appearance. The chondrocytes coveredthe entire carrier surface and were surrounded by significant amounts ofextracellular matrix. A multi-layer growth and formation of cellclusters could be detected. The multilayer chondrocyte growth was about4 layers high forming a cartilage layer approximately 2.0 mm thick witha cell density of approximately 10 million cells per cm³. This comparesto the thickness of articular cartilage which is 2-5 mm. In articularcartilage, the chondrocytes are not arranged in multilayers, but instacks of 1 to 8 cells, and the cellularity per amount of tissue islower. In the case of partially demineralized cancellous carriers, aneo-cartilage formation could be observed macroscopically by appearanceof a white opalescent capsule which was stable if impressed withforceps. In all other carriers this capsule formation was not noticeablemacroscopically.

The principles, preferred embodiments and modes of operation of thepresent invention have been described in the foregoing specification.However, the invention should not be construed as limited to theparticular embodiments which have been described above. Instead, theembodiments described here should be regarded as illustrative ratherthan restrictive. Variations and changes may be made by others withoutdeparting from the scope of the present invention as defined by thefollowing claims:

1. An implant for articular cartilage repair, comprising athree-dimensional body formed of cancellous bone and having ademineralized section, the demineralized section containing bonemorphogenetic proteins (BMP's) that are released by the demineralizationbut retained in said body, and a cartilage layer formed on a surface ofthe demineralized section, said cartilage layer being formed by a methodincluding the steps of: (a) isolating chondrocytes from articularcartilage of a donor; (b) cultivating the isolated chondrocytes in amedium; (c) adding the cultivated chondrocytes to the demineralizedsection of said body, whereby the cultivated chondrocytes are stimulatedby the BMP's retained in said body; and (d) incubating the cultivatedchondrocytes to form a plurality of layers of chondrocytes on thedemineralized section, wherein the plurality of layers of chondrocytesforms said cartilage layer.
 2. The implant as claimed in claim 1,wherein the plurality of layers of chondrocytes includes four layers. 3.The implant as claimed in claim 1, wherein the chondrocytes areallograft chondrocytes.
 4. The implant as claimed in claim 3, whereinthe donor is less than 50 years of age.
 5. The implant as claimed inclaim 3, wherein the donor is alive.
 6. The implant as claimed in claim3, wherein the donor is deceased.
 7. The implant as claimed in claim 1,wherein the chondrocytes are autograft chondrocytes.
 8. The implant asclaimed in claim 1, wherein said body is formed of allograft cancellousbone.
 9. The implant as claimed in claim 1, wherein step (b) includesplacing the surface of the demineralized section in a culture vessel andpreparing the surface of the demineralized section for cell seeding. 10.The implant as claimed in claim 1, wherein step (d) is performed untilsaid cartilage layer has a thickness in a range of from 2 mm to 5 mm.11. The implant as claimed in claim 1, wherein said body includes poreshaving a size that represents a multiple of the cell volume of achondrocyte.
 12. The implant as claimed in claim 1, wherein step (d) isperformed for a period of at least 40 days.
 13. The implant as claimedin claim 1, wherein the cell density of the chondrocytes in saidcartilage layer is about 10 million cells per cm³.
 14. The implant asclaimed in claim 1, wherein all of said body is demineralized.
 15. Theimplant as claimed in claim 1, wherein the demineralized section has adepth of approximately 2 mm.
 16. The implant as claimed in claim 15,wherein said body includes a mineralized section and a boundary layerformed between the demineralized section and the mineralized section,the boundary layer having a thickness of about 50 microns.
 17. Theimplant as claimed in claim 1, wherein said body includes pores having asize that ranges from 10 to 100 microns.
 18. The implant as claimed inclaim 1, wherein step (b) includes expanding the chondrocytes in atwo-dimensional culture until the chondrocytes show a dedifferentiatedfibroblast-like phenotype.
 19. The implant as claimed in claim 1,wherein step (d) is performed until said cartilage layer has a thicknessof approximately 2.0 mm.
 20. A construct for repairing an articularcartilage defect, said construct comprising a body entirely formed fromsubstantially demineralized bone.
 21. The construct as claimed in claim20, wherein said body contains bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs). 22.The construct as claimed in claim 20, wherein said body is porous. 23.The construct as claimed in claim 22, wherein said body includes poreshaving a size that represents a multiple of the cell volume of achondrocyte.
 24. The construct as claimed in claim 22, wherein saidpores have a size that ranges from 10 to 100 microns.
 25. The constructas claimed in claim 20, wherein said body is sterile.
 26. The constructas claimed in claim 20, wherein said body is spongy.
 27. The constructas claimed in claim 20, wherein said body is formed from allograft bone.28. The construct as claimed in claim 20, wherein said body has at leastone surface which contains chondrocytes.
 29. The construct as claimed inclaim 28, wherein said chondrocytes are allograft chondrocytes.
 30. Theconstruct as claimed in claim 28, wherein said chondrocytes have a celldensity that ranges from about 0.2 million to about 10 million cells percm³.
 31. The construct as claimed in claim 28, wherein said chondrocytescover the entirety of said at least one surface of said body.
 32. Theconstruct as claimed in claim 31, further comprising an extracellularmatrix that surrounds said chondrocytes.
 33. The construct as claimed inclaim 31, further comprising at least one cartilage layer overlying saidat least one surface.
 34. The construct as claimed in claim 33, whereinsaid cartilage layer has a thickness of approximately 2 millimeters. 35.The A construct as claimed in claim 33, wherein said at least onecartilage layer has a cell density that ranges from about 0.2 million toabout 10 million cells per cm³.
 36. The construct as claimed in claim31, further comprising a multiplicity of cartilage layers overlying saidat least one surface of said body.
 37. The construct as claimed in claim36, wherein said multiplicity of cartilage layers has a thickness ofapproximately 2 millimeters.